. Pre-Islamic Arabia. Why study pre-Islamic Arabia?. Information about these communities is limited and has been pieced together from archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and Arab oral traditions which were later recorded by Islamic historians. In 129, Hadrian visited the city and was so enthralled by it that he proclaimed it a free city and renamed it Palmyra Hadriana. Of Arabic, Gauhati University, Assam. A time was to come in the thirteenth century when a Mongolian overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific, , and Turkish dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine and Persian Empires, Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred would have been in under, -estimating the recuperative power of the Latin end of Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of the Arabian desert, . They participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (479-480 BCE) while also helping the Achaemenids invade Egypt by providing water skins to the troops crossing the desert.[93]. He refers to the people in Greek as Khindynoi (Greek , Arabic Kindah), and mentions that they and the tribe of Maadynoi (Greek: , Arabic: Ma'ad) were the two most important tribes in the area in terms of territory and number. [50] Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the residential suburb of Arad in Muharraq, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq island.[51]. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century. From the 3rd century BCE to arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of the Parthians and Sassanids. A. Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1991), p13. Political and Economic condition 3. [66] They were instead subject to the Metropolitan of Fars. Sedentary Arabs who inhabited cities or rural areas (towns, villages or oases). a. a sacrament. M. Ali, p22. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian peninsula has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Idol worship was introduced among the Arabs by 'Amr bin Luayy, chief of the clan Ban Khuza'ah who was considered an . The area steadily grew further in importance as a trade route linking Persia, India, China, and the Roman Empire. The Lakhmid Kingdom was founded by the Lakhum tribe that immigrated out of Yemen in the 2nd century and ruled by the Banu Lakhm, hence the name given it. And although the first sure reference to them dates from 312 BCE, it is possible that they were present much earlier. Islam, essentially Arabian in nature, whatever superficial external influences may have affected it, is Arabia's outstanding contribution to world civilization. Arabian Peninsula itself had two political zones. The Muslims were able to launch attacks against both empires, which resulted in destruction of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of Byzantium's territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, Syria and North Africa. Jadis and Tasm perished because of genocide. Abstract. The Thamud (Arabic: ) was an ancient civilization in Hejaz, which flourished kingdom from 3000 BCE to 200 BCE. Wells is a well known science fiction author from the early 20th century, but he also wrote a two-volume, non-fiction history of the world. It is the second convention of the historians (the first being to . [41] From the 6th to 3rd century BCE Bahrain was included in Persian Empire by Achaemenians, an Iranian dynasty. Foreign trade was based on the export of frankincense and myrrh. Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a considerable amount of political control of the trading cities of East Africa. There is very scarce information regarding women in pre-Islamic Arabia. By about 250 BCE, the Seleucids lost their territories to Parthians, an Iranian tribe from Central Asia. Thus, studies are no longer limited to the written traditions, which are not local due to the lack of surviving Arab historians' accounts of that era; the paucity of material is compensated for by written sources from other cultures (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, etc. Bas-relief with a palm tree; Sana'a, ancient Yemen, alabaster. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha`ir Awtar of Saba unexpectedly turned on Hadramaut, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Curtis E. Larsen. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of Uqair. - Free Online Library", "Culture of Yemen - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family", "Saudi Aramco World: Well of Good Fortune", "MANICHEISM v. MISSIONARY ACTIVITY AND TECHNIQUE: Manicheism in Arabia", "6th millennium BC structure discovered in Saudi Arabia", "Marking the sacral landscape of a north Arabian oasis: a sixth-millennium BC monumental stone platform and surrounding burials", "Mecca On The Caravan Routes In Pre-Islamic Antiquity", "Arabia In Late Antiquity: An Outline of The Cultural Situation In The Peninsula At The Time of Muhammad", "Sources For The History of Pre-Islamic Religion", "Literacy In Pre-Islamic Arabia: An Analysis of The Epigraphic Evidence", "The Earliest Relations of Islam with Other Religions: The Meccan Polytheists", Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Pre-Islamic Arabia: The Hanged Poems, before 622 CE, Ancient History Sourcebook: Ancient Accounts of Arabia, 430 BCE - 550 CE, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-Islamic_Arabia&oldid=1138747575, "Perishing Arabs": These are the ancients of whose history little is known. The great religious shrine of both pre-Muslim and Muslim Arabia is called the _____. The general consensus among 14th-century Arabic genealogists was that Arabs were three kinds: Modern historians believe that these distinctions were created during the Umayyad period, to support the cause of different political factions.[105]. Political Situation of Pre-Islamic Arabia - . Institution of Khilafat: Importance and relevance 8 . [112] The exact number; however, is often disputed by contemporary historians. [83] Most people from Makkah earned money by trading, money lending or being . Kitchen The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series. The Greeks called Yemen "Arabia Felix" (Happy Arabia). Scientific studies of Pre-Islamic Arabs starts with the Arabists of the early 19th century when they managed to decipher epigraphic Old South Arabian (10th century BCE), Ancient North Arabian (6th century BCE) and other writings of pre-Islamic Arabia. They were generally running from east to west . ASPECT OF PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIAN SOCIETYAfter the research we have made into the religious and political life of Arabia, it is appropriate to speak briefly about the social, economic and ethical conditions prevalent therein.SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ARABS: The Arabian Society presented a social medley, with different and heterogeneous social strata. Demoralised state is perhaps the most comprehensive phrase through which the pre- Islamic world can be concisely picturised. Ancient South Arabian inscriptions mention a tribe settling in Najd called kdt, who had a king called rbt (Rabi'ah) from w wr-m (the people of Thawr), who had sworn allegiance to the king of Saba' and Dh Raydn. The ancient Kingdom of Awsn in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at agar Yairr in the wadi Markhah, to the south of the Wd Bayn, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named ajar Asfal. The Islamic expansion occurred through military raids, Jihad, tolerance, stipends and taxes. and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars. Christianity was spread t. From the 3rd century CE, Arabian history becomes more tangible with the rise of the imyarite, and with the appearance of the Qanites in the Levant and the gradual assimilation of the Nabataeans by the Qanites in the early centuries CE, a pattern of expansion exceeded in the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. Multiple Trajectories of Islam in Africa Islam had already spread into northern Africa by the mid-seventh century A.D., only a few decades after the prophet Muhammad moved with his followers from Mecca to Medina on the neighboring Arabian Peninsula (622 A.D./1 A.H.). Despite the penetration of these religions into Arabia, , the peninsula was never controlled by the foreign power, . Pre-Islamic Arabia refers to the Arabic civilization which existed in the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam in the 630s. The weakened condition of the Byzantine and Persian empires B . DJ HILLIYA . THE STATE OF RELIGION IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA 3. Gods and goddesses were worshipped at local shrines, such as the Kaaba in Mecca. [26] Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the Middle East. Here, China has become more willing to share sensitive military technology and cooperate in research and development with regional partners in the Middle East. With the exception of Nestorianism in the northeast and the Persian Gulf, the dominant form of Christianity was Miaphysitism. Arabs were not considered as subjects to the Achaemenids, as other peoples were, and were exempt from taxation. Mahmud Ali Ghul Alfred Felix L. Beeston Pre-Islamic Arabia, to the 7th century ce Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, ancient Semitic religions (religions predating the Abrahamic religions which themselves likewise originated among the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples), Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and Mandaeism, and Iranian religions such as Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, as well as Dharmic religions such as Buddhism. -- influence on Islamic law; Five Pillars of Islam. Direct link to Jazlynn Valles 's post How would it have been to, Posted 3 years ago. How would it have been to convert from Christianity to becoming part of the Muslim community? [101] Werner Caskel criticizes the Crusader origin theory and instead proposes that the term "Solluba" describes a host of groups hailing from different backgrounds: those of al-as being of 12th- to 13th-century CE migrants from southern Persia, and the group to the west being composed of communities emerging after their defeat by the Wahhabis. In the prosperous southern region of the Arabian Peninsula, for example, the religious edicts of Christianity and Judaism held sway among the Sabians and Himyarites. The proverb "They were scattered like the people of Saba" refers to that exodus in history. [27][28] The Sumerians described Dilmun as a paradise garden in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes, at the height of their rule in the 6th century BCE, the Kingdom of Qedar spanned a large area between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai. It was the first of the Yemeni kingdoms to end, and the Minaean language died around 100 CE . The Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. vi. Arabia lay in a strategic location between Mesopotamia and Egypt, . "Thamud", in the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Pliny. It is often translated as the "Age of Ignorance". Major kingdoms included the Sabaeans, Awsan, Himyar and the Nabateans. It was also named as. The founder of the dynasty was 'Amr and the son Imru' al-Qais converted to Christianity. Gadarat (GDRT) of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba, and a Himyarite text notes that Hadramaut and Qataban were also allied against the kingdom. With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is Kuwait by Hyspaosines in 127 BCE. Pre-Islamic Arab Politics. The Articles of Faith. It was a time of ignorance and anarchy in the religious and social life in the world. Meccan Arabs, themselves, called the Pre-Islamic period as the Jahiliyya, meaning Age of Ignorance, or Age of Immorality. The first known inscriptions of the Kingdom of Hadhramaut are known from the 8th century BC. Instead, the socio-political structure of pre-Islamic Arabia was made up of many different tribes who were constantly at war with one another. and more. After Muhammad's death, in 632 C.E., the rise Islam overtook Afro-Eurasia. Deities were venerated and invoked through a variety of rituals, including pilgrimages and divination, as well as ritual sacrifice. [82] The Lihyanite kingdom went through three different stages, the early phase of Lihyan Kingdom was around the 7th century BC, started as a Sheikdom of Dedan then developed into the Kingdom of Lihyan tribe. [69] In 676, the bishops of Beth Qatraye stopped attending synods; although the practice of Christianity persisted in the region until the late 9th century.[66]. The economy of Pre-Islamic Arabia, specifically Mecca's economy, had many pros and cons. The term jahiliyyah is derived from the verbal root jahala () "to be ignorant or stupid . [115] The Ghassanids, as Monophysite Christians from Iraq, believed that God and Jesus Christ were only one nature. There is evidence of Roman rule in northern Arabia dating to the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BCE 14 CE). 2. Because of the Mycenaean motifs on what is referred to as Midianite pottery, some scholars including George Mendenhall,[6] Peter Parr,[7] and Beno Rothenberg[8] have suggested that the Midianites were originally Sea Peoples who migrated from the Aegean region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. First, let's look at what the world looked like before the emergence of Islam. Were Moses and Abraham really prophets? Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. Did Muhammed always conquer empires in the most peaceful way possible? Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Some authors assert that the Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and finally to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. They played a major role in the Himyarite-aramite war. Himyar then allied with Saba and invaded the newly taken Aksumite territories, retaking Thifar, which had been under the control of Gadarat's son Beygat, and pushing Aksum back into the Tihama. [citation needed] Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous Thamudic rock writings and pictures. Justinian viewed his mercenaries as so valued for preventing conflict that he awarded their chief with the titles of patrician, phylarch, and king the highest honours that he could bestow on anyone. Immortality: many practices went on in pre Islamic Arabia which are considered immoral by the standards of Islam which included; Idol worship - commits sins of shirk. Arabia was a highly tribal land governed by tribal politics 29. . Google Classroom. d. Despite almost succumbing to the plague, Byzantine emperor Justinian I (reigned 527565) attempted to resurrect the might of the Roman Empire by expanding into Arabia. 12. This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the Gulf of Aqaba and the important harbor of Elath. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, etc.) SOCIAL CONDITIONS 6. The Prophet(PBUH) as a Law giver, Statesman and Mercy to mankind 7. Hatoon Ajwad al-Fassi, author of "Women in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Nabataea" stands with her book during an interview at her residence in Riyadh, April 20, 2008. People were divided into classes in the society. The rise of merchant capital in Mecca conditioned the development of Meccan social, economic, religious, and political structure. Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia was a mix of polytheism, Christianity, Judaism, and Iranian religions. Socio-Religious conditions of pre-Islamic Arabia 2. [79][80] The standing relief image of a crowned man, is taken to be a representation possibly of the Jewish king Malkkarib Yuhamin or more likely the Christian Esimiphaios (Samu Yafa').[81]. Pre-Islamic Arabia is the Arabian Peninsula prior to the emergence of Islam in 610 CE. Politico-Notional . Direct link to Sofia Fitterer's post Did Muhammed always conqu, Posted 3 years ago. This trade largely consisted of exporting ivory from Africa to be sold in the Roman Empire. According to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. The advent of Islam fundamentally altered the status of women in several ways. The name was derived from 'Mazun', the Persian name for Oman and the United Arab Emirates. It came into prominence in the late 1st century BCE through the success of the spice trade. At the time in the seventh century of Arabia, people lived in the days of ignorance, known as Jahiliyah. Bedouin Arabs were usually proud of three things regarding their enemies. [18], Zoroastrianism was also present in Eastern Arabia. These recurred throughout the 6 th and 7 th centuries, and contributed to the demise of both civilizations. The political, social and cultural life developed by the peoples of the ancient world was shattered by the barbarians. [99], Cambridge linguist and anthropologist Roger Blench sees the Solubba as the last survivors of Palaeolithic hunters and salt-traders who once dominated Arabia. A. Dome of the Rock B. Temple of Solomon C. Great Shrine . Though arid desert conditions precluded most of mainland Arabia from crop cultivation, amazingly, pockets of agricultural land were present wherever water was available. Mahmood Ibrahim traces the roots of capitalism from the emergence of merchants as the main force in Mecca through the first civil war in Islam (-). Petra or Sela was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea. Zaheerul Islam, Guest lecturer, Deptt. H.G. Gerrha and Uqair are archaeological sites on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Direct link to Saravalenciatorres's post Before the founding of Is, Posted 3 years ago. Nat. The Aksumite intervention is connected with Dhu Nuwas, a Himyarite king who changed the state religion to Judaism and began to persecute the Christians in Yemen. The Persian king Khosrau I sent troops under the command of Vahriz (Persian: ), who helped the semi-legendary Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan to drive the Aksumites out of Yemen. The first point is that the social structure within the nomadic life of the Arabs in the desert. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. [97] They converted to Islam in mid 7th century CE and played a crucial role during the Arab conquest of their surroundings, although some sub-tribes declared apostasy during the ridda after the death of Muammad. political, economic and social conditions of past generations, but it is in large part determined by them." 1 So, it might be of interest at the beginning of our study to sketch briefly the international status of . Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society By Curtis E. Larsen p. 13, Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography By Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, page 119, Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Historical Researches Into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, Henry Bohn, 1854 p38, Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies, Ian Morris, Routledge, p184, Phillip Ward, Bahrain: A Travel Guide, Oleander Press p68, W. B. Fisher et al. Describe Mecca around the time of Muhammad's birth. Because Jews were waiting for the Messiah and Muhammad's claim to the be the long-awaited Messiah helped him convert the Jewish tribes. At times of extreme peril the pre-Islamic Arabs even directly invoked Allah's mercy and succour (Q. [91] An influential force between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, Qedarite monarchs are first mentioned in inscriptions from the Assyrian Empire. As you read this, think about why he felt it important to start with a global perspective. So Arabia, from Cairo to Petra to Damascus were all under a constant shadow of economic turmoil. c. the sale of the woman to her husband in exchange for a dowry. In writing the history of Islam, it is customary to begin with a survey of the political, economic, social and religious conditions of Arabia on the eve of the Proclamation by Muhammad (may God bless him and his Ahlul-Bait) of his mission as Messenger of God. The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press 1968 p40, Jean Francois Salles in Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain, 2500BC-300AD in Michael Rice, Harriet Crawford Ed, IB Tauris, 2002 p132, Bahrain By Federal Research Division, page 7, Robert G. Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam, Routledge 2001p28, Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in By Jamsheed K. Choksy, 1997, page 75. Werner Cascel consider the Nabataean annexation of Lihyan was around 24 BC under the reign of the Nabataeans king Aretas IV. During the reign of Tiberius (1437 CE), the already wealthy and elegant north Arabian city of Palmyra, located along the caravan routes linking Persia with the Mediterranean ports of Roman Syria and Phoenicia, was made part of the Roman province of Syria. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. First, the emergence of a centralised state, demanding total . The number of their members, horsemen, and poets they had. This site was first proposed by Robert Ernest Cheesman in 1924. Am I wrong? [56] However, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place.[57]. There common language was Arabic, There was no political unity among them. In the 1st century BC it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba' and dhu-Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. These seem to have been expressions of indigenous Arabian monotheism, , no doubt influenced by the success of Judaism and Christianity in the Middle East in general, 'an refers to a believer who is neither polytheist. The chief deity of the Qatabanians was Amm, or "Uncle" and the people called themselves the "children of Amm". Around the time of Muhammad's birth, Mecca was a prosperous trading city in the desert, which basically means that it had lots of merchants. Thus the people there had to leave. Slideshow 5006669 by yves. Direct link to Talha Ahmed's post Yes, when the various tri, Posted 3 years ago. A thoughtful interpretative survey of geography, tribal life, economic and political conditions. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian Peninsula has been sparse but fruitful; and many ancient sites have been identified by modern excavations. Migration: Importance and implications 5. [46] Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek empires, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use), while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun-god Shams. It later became independent and was invaded by the growing Yemeni kingdom of Himyar toward the end of the 1st century BCE, but it was able to repel the attack. Archaeological researchers from France, Saudi Arabia and Italy, headed by Olivia Munoz believe that these findings illuminate a pastoralist nomadic lifestyle and a ritual used in prehistoric Arabia. Allah mentions this Arabic word a few times. LITERACY AMOUNG ARABS BEFORE ISLAM 4. [58], In the 3rd century CE, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. 10:22; 31:32). c. Muslim fundamentalists. [63], During Minaean rule, the capital was at Karna (now known as Sa'dah). Arabian polytheism, the dominant form of religion in pre-Islamic Arabia, was based on the veneration of deities and spirits.Worship was directed to various gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lt, Al-'Uzz, and Mant, at local shrines and temples such as the Kaaba in Mecca. Pre-Islamic Arabia. Worship was directed to various gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lt, Al-'Uzz and Mant, at local shrines and temples, maybe such as the Kaaba in Mecca. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in Meccan religion. [108][109] Buddhism is also but rarely practiced as well. Arab polytheism, the dominant belief system, was based on the belief in deities and other supernatural beings such as djinn. 600 - 1450 Regional and interregional interactions. While Zoroastrianism existed in the eastern and southern Arabia, there was no existence of Manichaeism in Mecca. When the Minaeans took control of the caravan routes in the 4th century BCE, however, Hadramaut became one of its confederates, probably because of commercial interests. Economically (in terms of wealth) the Jews were the leaders of Arabia. This was just one aspect of the social and political strife that existed. Copy. Most of it originates from Hadith and historical traditions, pre-Islamic poetry, and early biographical accounts, or from conclusions from Qur'anic statements. "State and Society in Pre-Islamic Arabia." In The Early Islamic Conquests. Lihyan, also called Dadn or Dedan, was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the Arabian Peninsula and used Dadanitic language. And such a prophecy would not have been an altogether vain one, . The Byzantines' ally was a Christian Arabic tribe from the frontiers of the desert known as the Ghassanids. . [65], By the 5th century, Beth Qatraye was a major centre for Nestorian Christianity, which had come to dominate the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. [28], Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II (c. 1370 BCE) recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. A grasp of the geography of Arabia, therefore, is necessary . One legend mentions that they originated from ancient Christian groups, possibly Crusaders who were taken into slavery by the Bedouin. b. a civil contract legalizing intercourse and the procreation of children. [117] The fertile lands and important trade routes of Iraq were now open ground for upheaval. The Arab conquest of Spain and the push of Arab armies as far as the Indus River culminated in an empire that stretched over . His successor Darius the Great does not mention the Arabs in the Behistun inscription from the first years of his reign, but does mention them in later texts. They are also mentioned in the victory annals of the Neo-Assyrian King, Sargon II (8th century BCE), who defeated these people in a campaign in northern Arabia. 12.5 Political Structure in Pre-Islamic Arabia 12.6 Social Structures in Pre-Islamic Arabia 12.6.1 Tribal Structure and Leadership 12.6.2 Inequality and Slavery 12.6.3 The Elite Camel Nomads 12.6.4 Intra-Tribal Warfare 12.7 Economic Conditions 12.7.1 Camel Nomadism 12.7.2 Agriculture in Arabia 12.7.3 Industry and Mining in Arabia
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